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The two graduate degrees offered in
the United States are the master's degree and the
doctoral degree; both involve a combination of research
and coursework. Graduate education differs from
undergraduate education in that it offers a greater
depth of training, with increased specialization
and intensity of instruction. Study and learning
are more self-directed at the graduate level than
at the undergraduate level.
Graduate courses assume that students are well-prepared
in the basic elements of their field of study. Depending
on the subject, courses may be quite formal, consisting
primarily of lecture presentations by faculty members,
or they may be relatively informal, placing emphasis
on discussion and exchange of ideas among faculty
and students. Seminars involve smaller groups of
students than lecture courses, and students may
be required to make presentations as well as participate
in discussions. Class participation, research papers,
and examinations are all important.
Degree requirements are stated in terms of "credits"
(sometimes called "units" or "hours"),
and each course usually earns three or four credits,
generally reflecting the number of hours spent in
the classroom and the amount of other work involved.
A student will usually accumulate up to 48 credits
per academic year if the university operates on
a traditional two-semester system.
Master's Degrees
The master's degree is designed to provide additional
education or training in the student's specialized
branch of knowledge, well beyond the level of baccalaureate
study. Master's degrees are offered in many different
fields, and there are two main types of programs:
academic and professional.
Academic Master's: The master of arts (M.A.) and
master of science (M.S.) degrees are usually awarded
in the traditional arts, sciences, and humanities
disciplines. The M.S. is also awarded in technical
fields such as engineering and agriculture. Original
research, research methodology, and field investigation
are emphasized. These programs usually require the
completion of between 30 and 60 credit hours and
could reasonably be completed in one or two academic
years of full-time study. They may lead directly
to the doctoral level. (See "Important Difference"
below.)
Many master's programs offer a thesis and a non-thesis
option. The degree is the same in both cases, but
the academic requirements are slightly different.
Students in non-thesis programs usually take more
coursework in place of researching and writing a
thesis, and they take a written comprehensive examination
after all coursework is completed. Students in degree
programs that include a thesis component generally
take a comprehensive examination that is an oral
exam covering both coursework and their thesis.
Professional Master's: These degree programs are
designed to lead the student from the first degree
to a particular profession. Professional master's
degrees are most often "terminal" master's
programs, meaning that they do not lead to doctoral
programs. Such master's degrees are often designated
by specific descriptive titles, such as master of
business administration (M.B.A.), master of social
work (M.S.W.), master of education (M.Ed.), or master
of fine arts (M.F.A.). Other subjects of professional
master's programs include journalism, international
relations, architecture, and urban planning. Professional
master's degrees are oriented more toward direct
application of knowledge than toward original research.
They are more structured than academic degree programs,
and often require that every student take a similar
or identical program of study that lasts from one
to three years, depending on the institution and
the field of study.
Professional degree programs usually require completion
of between 36 and 48 units (one to two years of
full-time study), and usually do not offer a thesis
option. They do not always require that the bachelor's
degree be in a specific field, but they may recommend
a certain amount of prior study or coursework in
the subject area.
Important Difference: One main difference between
master's programs is whether or not they are designed
for students who intend to continue toward a doctoral
degree. Those that specifically do not lead into
doctoral programs are known as terminal master's
programs. Most professional master's degrees fall
under this category. Credits earned in terminal
master's programs may or may not be transferable
or applicable in case you decide to continue toward
a doctoral degree later on.
Some institutions restrict admission to certain
departments solely to potential doctoral candidates,
although they may award a terminal master's degree
to students who complete a certain level of coursework
but do not go on to their doctoral work. Other departments
require a master's degree as part of the requirements
for admission to their doctoral program.
Since policies vary from institution to institution
and within various departments of each institution,
it is best to check directly with individual graduate
departments to determine the structure and admissions
policies for their master's and doctoral candidates.
Doctoral Degrees
The doctoral degree is designed to train research
scholars and, in many cases, future college and
university faculty members. Receipt of a doctoral
degree certifies that the student has demonstrated
capacity as a trained research scholar in a specific
discipline.
At the doctoral level, the Ph.D. (doctor of philosophy)
is the most common degree awarded in academic disciplines.
Other doctoral degrees are awarded primarily in
professional fields, such as education (Ed.D. or
doctor of education) and business administration
(D.B.A. or doctor of business administration). Doctoral
programs involve advanced coursework, seminars,
and the writing of a dissertation that describes
the student's own original research, completed under
the supervision of a faculty adviser.
A comprehensive examination is given, usually after
three to five years of study and completion of all
coursework, and when the student and adviser agree
that the student is ready. This exam is designed
to test the student's ability to use knowledge gained
through courses and independent study in a creative
and original way. Students must demonstrate a comprehensive
understanding of their chosen field of study. Successful
completion of this examination marks the end of
the student's coursework and the beginning of concentration
on research.
The Ph.D. degree is awarded to those students who
complete an original piece of significant research,
write a dissertation describing that research, and
successfully defend their work before a panel of
faculty members who specialize in the discipline.
This may take an additional two to three years.
To earn a doctoral degree, therefore, may take anywhere
from five to eight years beyond the bachelor's degree,
depending on the field of study.
In the United States, you will find a variety of
nontraditional doctoral programs; these programs
might have very different types of requirements
from the traditional programs. Prospective students
should be sure of what is required to enter any
program they are considering, and what is required
to obtain the degree. This information is usually
available from university catalogs and websites
or directly from individual departments.
Colleges, Universities, and Institutes: The Distinction
Degree-granting institutions in the United States
can be called by any of these terms, and colleges
and institutes are in no way inferior to universities.
As a general rule, colleges tend to be smaller than
universities and usually do not offer doctoral degrees,
while a university offers a wide range of graduate
programs, including doctoral degrees. Universities
emphasize research as well as teaching (traditionally
a strength of colleges), and universities that offer
doctoral programs are usually referred to as research
universities. The words "school," "college,"
and "university" are used interchangeably
throughout this section.
An institute usually specializes in degree programs
in a group of closely related subject areas, so
you will also come across degree programs offered
at institutes of technology, institutes of fashion,
institutes of art and design, and so on. Research
centers offer graduate degrees or research and training
opportunities, and they may or may not be affiliated
with universities.
Within each institution you may find schools such
as the school of arts and sciences or school of
business. Each school is responsible for the degree
programs offered by the college or university in
that area of study.
Private and Public Institutions
Both public and private universities offer degree
programs. The terms "public" and "private"
refer to the way in which universities are financially
supported.
Public universities may also be called state universities,
and some include the words "state university"
in their title or include a regional element such
as "eastern" or "northern."
State universities tend to be very large with enrollments
of 20,000 or more students. Since public universities
obtain a part of their support from the state in
which they are located, the tuition they charge
is often lower than that charged by private institutions.
In addition, public institutions generally charge
lower tuition to state residents (those who live
and pay taxes in the state) than to students coming
from outside the state. International students are
considered out-of-state residents and therefore
do not benefit from reduced tuition at most state
institutions.
Private institutions are supported by student tuition,
investment income, research contracts, and private
donations. Tuition fees tend to be higher at private
universities than at state universities, and they
charge the same tuition to all students, both state
and non-state residents. Colleges with a religious
affiliation and single-sex colleges are private.
In general, private universities have enrollments
of fewer than 20,000 students, and private colleges
may have 2,000 or fewer students on their campuses.
Except for financial considerations, the public
or private nature of a university should not be
a factor in selecting a graduate program. High quality
programs exist in both types of institutions. Of
more importance is the institution's commitment
to the graduate program. This commitment is found
in its willingness to maintain a first-class faculty
and to provide excellent facilities for advanced
study, including libraries, laboratories, computers,
and other equipment. Another important factor to
consider in many disciplines is the presence of
strong departments in other fields relevant to your
interests so that you can have access to scholars
and courses in disciplines related to your own.
Distance education is an increasingly popular way
to study for everything from a short professional
course to a doctoral degree in the United States,
and numerous institutions offer graduate degree
programs using distance education teaching methods.
Under the distance education model, students do
not attend classes in a classroom on a campus; instead,
classes are delivered "from a distance"
through the use of technologies such as the Internet,
satellite television, video conferencing, and other
means of electronic delivery. For international
students this means that they can study for a U.S.
degree without leaving their home country, though
they may have to go to the United States for short
periods of face-to-face contact and study on the
campus.
Studying for a degree using distance education requires
students to have special qualities such as self-discipline
and the ability to work on their own. If you are
considering distance education, you should thoroughly
research the quality of the program, the accreditation
of the institution in the United States, and its
recognition in your home country to make sure this
option is the appropriate one for your future goals.
